rewrite test: OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com
It was a bright and beautiful morning in Sarajevo when Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, departed from an Austrian military exercise to embark on their motorcade through Bosnia and Herzegovina’s capital. Despite warnings of unrest and rebellion, the couple chose to proceed with their tour of the city en route to a reception at city hall.
What the royal couple didn’t know was that a Serbian terrorist group known as the Black Hand had carefully orchestrated an assassination attempt against Ferdinand. Seven assassins had been stationed across the city, all awaiting the perfect moment to strike and prevent the Archduke from ascending to the Austro-Hungarian throne, where he could continue oppressing the Serbs living under the empire's rule.
Serbia had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, and many Serbs had settled in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Tensions flared when the Congress of Berlin allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy these areas, including Serbian-settled lands. The situation escalated in 1908 when Austria-Hungary formally annexed the occupied territories, further fueling Serbian resentment.
As the motorcade made its way through the streets, unaware of the danger, it eventually reached a location where one of the assassins was positioned. Spotting the convoy, the assassin Gabrinovic threw an explosive at the royal vehicle. The driver quickly accelerated, and Ferdinand managed to deflect the bomb, which landed on the car behind them, detonating and severely injuring members of the Archduke's entourage.
Students and Teachers of US History this is a video of Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. The December 2015 video was an impromptu capture by a member of the audience of Penn students, professors and guests that numbered about 200.
The remaining five cars in the convoy hurried toward city hall, passing other members of the terrorist group who chose not to act. After the reception, it was time for the Archduke and Archduchess to leave Sarajevo. General Oskar Potiorik, alarmed by the growing danger, urged Ferdinand and his escorts to exit the city as swiftly as possible, taking the shortest route.
Heeding the General's warning, the motorcade quickly departed from city hall, heading back toward the military exercises. They sped through the streets until they reached a sharp "V" turn near the Nilgacka River. To navigate the bend safely, the cars were forced to slow down, inadvertently creating the perfect opportunity for the assassins to strike.
At that moment, Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old Serbian nationalist, stepped forward, pulled out his pistol, and fired two shots. The first bullet struck the pregnant Archduchess Sophie in the abdomen, killing her instantly. The second shot hit Archduke Ferdinand near the heart, and moments after calling out for "Sophie," he too succumbed to his wounds.
The assassination shattered the already fragile relations between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, plunging Europe into what would become one of the deadliest conflicts in history. The Great War, later known as World War I, was triggered by the events of June 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, setting off a chain of alliances and hostilities.
With Germany’s unconditional support promised by Emperor William II, Austrian foreign minister Count Leopold von Berchtold seized the opportunity to crush the Serbian nationalist movement. He presented Serbia with a harsh ultimatum that included a 48-hour deadline. Confident in Russia's backing, Serbia rejected the demands, prompting Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia.
On July 28, 1914, the stage for World War I was set. By July 31, Russia had begun mobilizing its forces, enraging Germany. Germany responded by issuing its own ultimatum to Russia, but when it was ignored, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914.
After declaring war on Russia, Germany became convinced that France was preparing to launch an offensive along its Western Front. As a result, Germany declared war on France. Eager to engage the French as swiftly as possible, Germany violated British neutrality by sending its troops through Belgium and Luxembourg. This breach infuriated the British public, leading them to rally behind their government, which soon entered World War I.
In just a few weeks, the Allied forces had expanded to include Montenegro, Japan, Great Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, and Belgium. On the opposing side, the Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. These military coalitions would soon be involved in some of the most brutal and costly battles in history.
From the trenches, soldiers on both sides would peek over the parapets, triggering a storm of violence as each side tried to overrun the other's position. The death toll climbed with each assault, as troops faced machine gun fire, mortars, grenades, and one of the deadliest weapons of all—poison gas, first deployed by the Germans against Canadian forces in Ypres, Belgium.
While the war's devastation mounted, the United States remained determined to stay neutral. Perhaps this was influenced by the advice of President George Washington, who, in his 1776 farewell address, urged the U.S. to avoid becoming entangled in European affairs or forming alliances with foreign nations.
- First United American Republic: United Colonies of North America: 13 British Colonies United in Congress was founded by 12 colonies on September 5th, 1774 (Georgia joined in 1775) and governed through a British Colonial Continental Congress. Peyton Randolph and George Washington served, respectively, as the Republic's first President and Commander-in-Chief;
- Second United American Republic: The United States of America: 13 Independent States United in Congress wasfounded by 12 states on July 2nd, 1776 (New York abstained until July 9th), and governed through the United States Continental Congress. John Hancock and George Washington served, respectively, as the Republic's first President and Commander-in-Chief;
- Third United American Republic: The United States of America: A Perpetual Union was founded by 13 States on March 1st, 1781, with the enactment of the first U.S. Constitution, the Articles of Confederation, and governed through the United States in Congress Assembled. Samuel Huntington and George Washington served, respectively, as the Republic's first President and Commander-in-Chief;
- Fourth United American Republic: The United States of America: We the People was formed by 11 states on March 4th, 1789 (North Carolina and Rhode Island joined in November 1789 and May 1790, respectively), with the enactment of the U.S. Constitution of 1787. The fourth and current United States Republic governs through the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate in Congress Assembled, the U.S. President and Commander-in-Chief, and the U.S. Supreme Court. George Washington served as the Republic's first President and Commander-in-Chief.
America's resolve to remain neutral was severely tested in May 1915 when a German U-boat sank the Lusitania as it slowed to meet the Juno, which was set to escort it through the English Channel. Following the tragedy, in which 138 Americans perished, Germany warned that it would resume unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting all merchant ships and their crews without discrimination.
The American public, outraged by the sinking of the Lusitania, demanded that the U.S. government take action to avenge the atrocity. In response, President Woodrow Wilson sent a formal protest to Germany. Fearful that American involvement would stretch their limited number of submarines too thin, Germany temporarily halted its unrestricted sub-campaign.
By 1917, however, Germany had significantly bolstered its submarine fleet. Confident they could now confront any threat, they resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, declaring that even neutral American ships would be targeted. This was the final straw for the United States, which declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
Germany’s provocation had, in effect, sealed its fate. With America now in the war, the Allies—who had been suffering severe losses and were on the brink of collapse—gained access to vast American resources and manpower, ensuring their path to victory. President Wilson further destabilized the Central Powers by encouraging revolutionary movements in their territories.
Meanwhile, on the Western Front, the war was locked in a brutal stalemate, but in the Middle East, Allied forces made significant headway. British troops not only halted the Turkish advance on the Suez Canal but also pressed on to dismantle the Ottoman Empire.
Obsessed with capturing Paris, Germany launched a counteroffensive at Marne in 1918. However, their attack met fierce resistance, and they were halted before reaching the city. Marshal Foch quickly reorganized Allied forces and ordered a counter-attack, which successfully pushed the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line.
The Allies continued their advance, with the British progressing in the north and the Americans launching a major assault through the Argonne region of France. The relentless pressure from the Allies began to break the Central Powers' hold on the war. Bulgaria soon surrendered following an invasion led by Allied General Franchet d'Espèrey.
In the Middle East, T.E. Lawrence played a key role in inciting an Arab revolt, leading to the capture of Baghdad in March 1917. By December of that year, Field Marshal Allenby had seized Jerusalem. While the war was nearing its conclusion, isolated pockets of resistance still needed to be subdued before a full peace could be established.
After landing in France in June 1917, General John Pershing and the 1st American Expeditionary Forces were swiftly deployed to Chateau-Thierry, where they helped to crush a new German offensive, further sealing the fate of the Central Powers.
World War I Perspective Map of the Western Front Showing the Furthest German Advance (September, 1914) and the Armistice Line of November II, 1918.
The rapidly weakening Central Powers had hoped to regain strength with the signing of the 1918 Brest-Litovsk treaty. They anticipated that resources from Ukraine could help offset the impact of the Allied blockade and allow them to concentrate on the Western Front. However, this last-ditch effort at securing victory was doomed to fail. The ever-growing might of the Allied forces, which had expanded to include Italy, Portugal, and Romania, proved overwhelming.
Bulgaria was the first to surrender, on September 30th, after being invaded by Allied General Franchet d'Espèrey. Turkey followed suit on October 30th. By November 4th, Austria-Hungary’s army was in such disarray that their defeat at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto forced them to surrender to the Italian forces.
Germany, by this point, was exhausted. Its military resources were depleted, morale had collapsed, and the hope for victory was completely shattered. Chancellor Maximilian, Prince of Baden, accepted U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points as the basis for peace negotiations.
Any hesitation Germany had regarding a peace agreement dissolved after a brief revolution broke out within the country. Ultimately, Germany signed the armistice on November 11, 1918, effectively ending all hostilities. Under the armistice's terms, German troops were immediately withdrawn from west of the Rhine, and the previously signed Brest-Litovsk treaty was nullified.
World War I officially came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. The cost of the four-year war was staggering in both human lives and material loss. The Central Powers suffered 37,508,686 casualties, representing 57.6% of their mobilized forces. Meanwhile, the Allied Powers, who mobilized 42,188,810 troops, experienced 22,104,209 casualties, or 52.3%.
Continental Congress of the United Colonies Presidents
September 5, 1774
|
October 22, 1774
| |
October 22, 1774
|
October 26, 1774
| |
May 20, 1775
|
May 24, 1775
| |
May 25, 1775
|
July 1, 1776
|
Continental Congress of the United States Presidents
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776
|
October 29, 1777
| |
November 1, 1777
|
December 9, 1778
| |
December 10, 1778
|
September 28, 1779
| |
September 29, 1779
|
February 28, 1781
|
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
March 1, 1781
|
July 6, 1781
| |
July 10, 1781
|
Declined Office
| |
July 10, 1781
|
November 4, 1781
| |
November 5, 1781
|
November 3, 1782
| |
November 4, 1782
|
November 2, 1783
| |
November 3, 1783
|
June 3, 1784
| |
November 30, 1784
|
November 22, 1785
| |
November 23, 1785
|
June 5, 1786
| |
June 6, 1786
|
February 1, 1787
| |
February 2, 1787
|
January 21, 1788
| |
January 22, 1788
|
January 21, 1789
|
(1789-1797)
|
(1933-1945)
| |
(1865-1869)
| ||
(1797-1801)
|
(1945-1953)
| |
(1869-1877)
| ||
(1801-1809)
|
(1953-1961)
| |
(1877-1881)
| ||
(1809-1817)
|
(1961-1963)
| |
(1881 - 1881)
| ||
(1817-1825)
|
(1963-1969)
| |
(1881-1885)
| ||
(1825-1829)
|
(1969-1974)
| |
(1885-1889)
| ||
(1829-1837)
|
(1973-1974)
| |
(1889-1893)
| ||
(1837-1841)
|
(1977-1981)
| |
(1893-1897)
| ||
(1841-1841)
|
(1981-1989)
| |
(1897-1901)
| ||
(1841-1845)
|
(1989-1993)
| |
(1901-1909)
| ||
(1845-1849)
|
(1993-2001)
| |
(1909-1913)
| ||
(1849-1850)
|
(2001-2009)
| |
(1913-1921)
| ||
(1850-1853)
|
(2009-2017)
| |
(1921-1923)
| ||
(1853-1857)
|
(20017-Present)
| |
(1923-1929)
|
*Confederate States of America
| |
(1857-1861)
| ||
(1929-1933)
| ||
(1861-1865)
|
United Colonies Continental Congress
|
President
|
18th Century Term
|
Age
|
Elizabeth "Betty" Harrison Randolph (1745-1783)
|
09/05/74 – 10/22/74
|
29
| |
Mary Williams Middleton (1741- 1761) Deceased
|
Henry Middleton
|
10/22–26/74
|
n/a
|
Elizabeth "Betty" Harrison Randolph (1745–1783)
|
05/20/ 75 - 05/24/75
|
30
| |
Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (1747-1830)
|
05/25/75 – 07/01/76
|
28
| |
United States Continental Congress
|
President
|
Term
|
Age
|
Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (1747-1830)
|
07/02/76 – 10/29/77
|
29
| |
Eleanor Ball Laurens (1731- 1770) Deceased
|
Henry Laurens
|
11/01/77 – 12/09/78
|
n/a
|
Sarah Livingston Jay (1756-1802)
|
12/ 10/78 – 09/28/78
|
21
| |
Martha Huntington (1738/39–1794)
|
09/29/79 – 02/28/81
|
41
| |
United States in Congress Assembled
|
President
|
Term
|
Age
|
Martha Huntington (1738/39–1794)
|
03/01/81 – 07/06/81
|
42
| |
Sarah Armitage McKean (1756-1820)
|
07/10/81 – 11/04/81
|
25
| |
Jane Contee Hanson (1726-1812)
|
11/05/81 - 11/03/82
|
55
| |
Hannah Stockton Boudinot (1736-1808)
|
11/03/82 - 11/02/83
|
46
| |
Sarah Morris Mifflin (1747-1790)
|
11/03/83 - 11/02/84
|
36
| |
Anne Gaskins Pinkard Lee (1738-1796)
|
11/20/84 - 11/19/85
|
46
| |
Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (1747-1830)
|
11/23/85 – 06/06/86
|
38
| |
Rebecca Call Gorham (1744-1812)
|
06/06/86 - 02/01/87
|
42
| |
Phoebe Bayard St. Clair (1743-1818)
|
02/02/87 - 01/21/88
|
43
| |
Christina Stuart Griffin (1751-1807)
|
01/22/88 - 01/29/89
|
36
|
Constitution of 1787
First Ladies |
President
|
Term
|
Age
|
April 30, 1789 – March 4, 1797
|
57
| ||
March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801
|
52
| ||
Martha Wayles Jefferson Deceased
|
September 6, 1782 (Aged 33)
|
n/a
| |
March 4, 1809 – March 4, 1817
|
40
| ||
March 4, 1817 – March 4, 1825
|
48
| ||
March 4, 1825 – March 4, 1829
|
50
| ||
December 22, 1828 (aged 61)
|
n/a
| ||
February 5, 1819 (aged 35)
|
n/a
| ||
March 4, 1841 – April 4, 1841
|
65
| ||
April 4, 1841 – September 10, 1842
|
50
| ||
June 26, 1844 – March 4, 1845
|
23
| ||
March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849
|
41
| ||
March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850
|
60
| ||
July 9, 1850 – March 4, 1853
|
52
| ||
March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857
|
46
| ||
n/a
|
n/a
| ||
March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865
|
42
| ||
February 22, 1862 – May 10, 1865
| |||
April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869
|
54
| ||
March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877
|
43
| ||
March 4, 1877 – March 4, 1881
|
45
| ||
March 4, 1881 – September 19, 1881
|
48
| ||
January 12, 1880 (Aged 43)
|
n/a
| ||
June 2, 1886 – March 4, 1889
|
21
| ||
March 4, 1889 – October 25, 1892
|
56
| ||
June 2, 1886 – March 4, 1889
|
28
| ||
March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901
|
49
| ||
September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909
|
40
| ||
March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913
|
47
| ||
March 4, 1913 – August 6, 1914
|
52
| ||
December 18, 1915 – March 4, 1921
|
43
| ||
March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923
|
60
| ||
August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929
|
44
| ||
March 4, 1929 – March 4, 1933
|
54
| ||
March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945
|
48
| ||
April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953
|
60
| ||
January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961
|
56
| ||
January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963
|
31
| ||
November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1969
|
50
| ||
January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974
|
56
| ||
August 9, 1974 – January 20, 1977
|
56
| ||
January 20, 1977 – January 20, 1981
|
49
| ||
January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989
|
59
| ||
January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993
|
63
| ||
January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001
|
45
| ||
January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009
|
54
| ||
January 20, 2009 to date
|
45
|
Philadelphia
|
Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774
| |
Philadelphia
|
May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776
| |
Baltimore
|
Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777
| |
Philadelphia
|
March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777
| |
Lancaster
|
September 27, 1777
| |
York
|
Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778
| |
Philadelphia
|
July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783
| |
Princeton
|
June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783
| |
Annapolis
|
Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784
| |
Trenton
|
Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784
| |
New York City
|
Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788
| |
New York City
|
October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789
| |
New York City
|
March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790
| |
Philadelphia
|
Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800
| |
Washington DC
|
November 17,1800 to Present
|
Hosted by The New Orleans Jazz Museum and The Louisiana Historical Center
A Non-profit Corporation
202-239-1774 | Office
202-239-0037 | FAX
Dr. Naomi and Stanley Yavneh Klos, Principals
 |
| U.S. Dollar Presidential Coin Mr. Klos vs Secretary Paulson - Click Here |
The United States of America Continental Congress Presidents (1776-1781)
The United States of America in Congress Assembled Presidents (1781-1789)
The United States of America Presidents and Commanders-in-Chiefs (1789-Present)
